Terrorism: Definition, History and Solutions

Terrorism: Definition, History and Solutions TERRORISM:  AN EXPLORATION OF ITS DEFINITION, HISTORY, AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS â€Å"Terrorism upsets people. It does so deliberately. That is its point, and that is why it has engrossed so much of our attention in the early years of the 21st century.† Townshend [1] Ask any ten individuals on the streets of London, Paris, Moscow, or New York for the top three issues facing the world today and one common response is likely to be terrorism. Inquire further about how the same people would define terrorism, when terrorism began, and how terrorism can be stopped and you will probably be faced with a myriad of answers, or maybe just looks of puzzlement. The range of responses (or lack thereof) from the public should not be surprising. Not even experts agree on responses to these seemingly fundamental questions on an issue of such importance to worldwide security, an issue that Thackrah suggests is â€Å"one of the most intractable global problems at the start of the twenty-first century†.[2] This essay begins by surveying the vast array of definitions for the term terrorism, providing some insight into the reasons that terrorism is so difficult for experts to define, and adopting a working definition for the term. The historical roots of terrorism will then be explored and results of a review of selected literature on possible solutions for dealing with terrorism will be introduced. Finally, a conclusion discussing the results of the literature review will be presented. Terrorism Defined What is terrorism? The definition assigned to the term very much depends on who you ask, although, as Hoffman writes, â€Å"few words have so insidiously worked their way in to our everyday vocabulary†.[3] Oots writes that terrorism has been defined in different ways by various scholars.[4] Hoffman suggests that most individuals have vague notions of what the term means, but cannot offer precise, explanatory definitions. The Terrorism Research Center claims that â€Å"[t]errorism by nature is difficult to define†.[5] Townshend writes that both politicians and scholars have been â€Å"hung up† in attempting to define terrorism in a way that distinguishes it from other criminal violence and even military action.[6] Complicating attempts to define terrorism, the meaning and usage of the term have changed over the years.[7] Complications aside, most people would agree that terrorism is a subjective term with negative connotations, a pejorative term, used to describe the acts of enemies or opponents. The term has moral connotations and can be used to persuade others to adopt a particular viewpoint. For instance, if an individual sympathises with the victims of terrorism, then the perpetrator is considered to be a terrorist, but if an individual sympathises with the perpetrator, then the perpetrator is considered to be a freedom fighter or is referred to by equally positive characterisations.[8] About this, the Terrorism Research Center writes: â€Å"One man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter.†[9] Whittaker distinguishes between terrorists, guerrillas, and freedom fighters in writing: â€Å"the terrorist targets civilians†; â€Å"the guerrilla goes for military personnel and facilities†; and â€Å"the freedom fighter conducts a campaign to liberate his people from dictatorial oppression, gross disarmament, or the grip of an occupying power†.[10] One author included over one hundred definitions for the term terrorism.[11] Another quoted over ninety definitions and descriptions.[12] The definitions range from those that are quite simplistic to those that are equally comprehensive. The following definitions are illustrative of the broad range of thought: Terrorism is â€Å"violence for purposes of creating fear†.[13] Terrorism is â€Å"politically and socially motivated violence†.[14] â€Å"Terrorism is political violence in or against true democracies.†[15] â€Å"Terrorism may be described as a strategy of violence designed to inspire terror within a particular segment of a given society.†[16] â€Å"Terrorism is the most amoral of organised violence†.[17] Terrorism is â€Å"a form of warfare†¦used when full-scale military action is not possible†.[18] â€Å"Terrorism is a method of action by which an agent tends to produce terror in order to impose his domination.†[19] â€Å"Terrorism is the systematic use of coercive intimidation, usually to service political ends. It is used to create a climate of fear.[20] Terrorism is â€Å"the threat or use of violence, often against the civilian population, to achieve political or social ends, to intimidate opponents, or to publicise grievances†.[21] â€Å"Terrorism is the use of coercive means aimed at populations in an effort to achieve political, religious, or other aims.†[22] Terrorism is â€Å"politically motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience†.[23] Whittaker explores the complexity of defining terrorism by furnishing a comprehensive list of terrorism criteria:[24] The violence or threat of violence inherent in terrorism is premeditated and politically motivated for the purpose of intimidating or coercing a government or the public in general. The strategy of terrorism is to instil fear and insecurity. Sustained campaigns or sporadic incidents are applied by terrorists in conducting their unlawful activities. Calculated use of violence is applied against civilian, non-combatant targets. Acquiring, manipulating, and employing power is at the root of terrorism. Revolutionary terrorism attempts to completely change the political system within a state; sub-revolutionary terrorism attempts to effect change without totally replacing the existing political system. Terrorism consists of carefully planned goals, means, targets, and access conducted in a clandestine manner. The goals of terrorism focus on political, social, ideological, or religious ends. This distinguishes terrorism from other criminal activity. Terrorism is conducted occasionally by individuals, but most often by sub-national groups. An important objective of terrorism is to obtain maximum publicity. Increasingly, terrorist â€Å"zones of action† are extending beyond national borders, becoming transnational in effect. The vast number of definitions proposed for the term terrorism might make one wonder if there could ever be agreement around a common definition. For without a common understanding about what terrorism is, how can it be challenged and ultimately removed as a threat to modern civilisation? Despite the many definitions for terrorism, there does seem to be an emerging consensus on the definition of the term, according to Jenkins.[25] For instance, Enders and Sandler offer the following comprehensive definition of terrorism: â€Å"Terrorism is the premeditated use or threat of use of extranormal violence or brutality by subnational groups to obtain a political, religious, or ideological objective through intimidation of a huge audience, usually not directly involved with the policy making that terrorists seek to influence.†[26] Enders and Sandler’s definition will be used for the purpose of this essay not only because it is an example of a current consensus description, but also because it contains criteria suggested by other definitions surveyed in the literature review – violence or threats of violence; intimidation of large civilian audiences; desire to influence; subnational terrorist groupings; and political, religious, or ideological objectives. Historical Roots of Terrorism Colin Gray writes that terrorism â€Å"is as old as strategic history†.[27] The roots of terrorism can be traced back in time to ancient Greece, and terrorist acts have occurred throughout history since that time. The term terrorism, however, originated in the French Revolution’s Reign of Terror [28] and was popularised at that time.[29] Terrorism in this era carried a very positive connotation as it was undertaken in an effort to establish order during the anarchy that followed uprisings in France in 1789. It was considered to be an instrument of governance instituted to intimidate counter-revolutionaries, dissidents and subversives and was associated with the ideals of democracy and virtue. In fact, according to Hoffman, the revolutionary leader Maximillien Robespierre claimed that â€Å"virtue, without which terror is evil; terror, without which virtue is helpless† and that â€Å"[t]error is nothing but justice, prompt, severe and inflexible; it is therefore an emanation of virtue†.[30] Terrorism at the start of the twentieth century retained the revolutionary connotations it had acquired during the French Revolution as it took aim on the Ottoman and Habsburg Empires. In the 1930s, the meaning of terrorism mutated to describe activities of totalitarian governments and their leaders against their citizenry in Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Stalinist Russia. For instance, in Germany and Italy, gangs of â€Å"brown shirts† or â€Å"black shirts† harassed and intimidated opponents, although leaders of these nations denied that this occurred. After World War II, the meaning of terrorism changed once again, returning to its revolutionary connotations where it remains today. Terrorist activities in the 1940s and 1950s primarily focused on revolts by indigenous nationalist groups opposing colonial rule in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, resulting in independence for many countries. Although terrorism retained its revolutionary connotation in the 1960s and 1970s, the focus shifted from anti-colonialist to separatist goals. Today, terrorism involves broader, less distinct goals.[31] The right-wing and left-wing terrorism that became widespread in recent times included acts by diverse groups such as the Italian Red Brigades; the Irish Republican Army; the Palestine Liberation Organisation; the Shining Path in Peru; the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in Sri Lanka; the Weatherman in the United States; various â€Å"militia† organisations, also in the United States; radical Muslims through Hamas and Al Quaeda; radical Sikhs in India; and the Aum Shinrikyo in Japan.[32] Some governments, such as those in Iran, Iraq, Libya, and Syria, are also considered to be involved in terrorism as sponsors of terrorist activities.[33] Some people, such as American dissident Noam Chomsky, contend that the government of the United States is engaged in terrorism, as exemplified by the title of Chomsky’s 2001 article entitled â€Å"U.S.â₠¬â€A Leading Terrorist State†, which appeared in the Monthly Review[34]. Terrorism associated with the French Revolution had two important characteristics in common with terrorism today. Firstly, terrorism was, and is today, organised, deliberate, and systematic. Secondly, the goals of terrorism then and now were and are to create a new, better society.[35] But, terrorism today has changed in some very fundamental ways: (1) terrorist organisations have evolved into network forms and are less often organised in hierarchies; (2) the identities of transnational terrorist organisations are harder to identify because they claim responsibility for specific acts less often; (3) today’s terrorist groups do not make demands as often as in the past and their goals appear to be more hazy and vague; (4) motives have generally shifted from those that are more politically-oriented to those that are more religiously-oriented; (5) targets of terrorists are more dispersed around the globe; and (6) terrorist violence, today, is more indiscriminate, involving signifi cant collateral damage to the public.[36] With this historical foundation, particularly the description of the evolution of terrorism into its current form, the focus now shifts to possible solutions to dealing with the issue today. Possible Solutions to Terrorism To effectively meet the challenges of terrorism, one should consider the history of terrorism, but must also look to the future. Kress and colleagues contend that terrorism is increasing in â€Å"geographical scope, numerical frequency, and intensity† as well as in â€Å"ingenuity and subtlety†. They suggest that these trends could well translate into more varied threats and more powerful tools and weapons, adding that â€Å"bombs will get smaller and more powerful, poisons and mind-blowing drugs more insidious, psychological techniques for converting or brainwashing the victims more effective, and psychological tortures more agonizing.†[37] Ian Lesser offers a comprehensive approach for meeting the challenges of terrorism. His approach consists of a core strategy and supporting strategies aimed at targeting security threats posed by terrorists within a context of global security threats from all sources. Lesser’s core strategy consists of four components: (1) reducing systemic causes of terrorism, (2) deterring terrorists and their sponsors, (3) reducing risks associated with â€Å"superterrorism†, and (4) retaliating in instances where deterrence fails. In reducing system causes of terrorism, Lesser is referring to the long-term goal of addressing issues that give rise to terrorism such as social and economic problems, unresolved ethnic and nationalist conflicts, frustrated political ambitions, and personal experiences of individuals who may become future terrorists. In deterring terrorists and their sponsors, Lesser suggests taking â€Å"massive and personal† actions against terrorist leadership, although he concedes that this is becoming more and more difficult as terrorists and their sponsors become more diverse and diffuse. In reducing risks associated with â€Å"superterrorism†, Lesser calls for eliminating weapons of mass destruction that terrorists could use in inflicting destruction and suffering. And, finally, in retaliating when deterrence fails, Lesser suggests developing the means to retaliate quickly and specifically to terrorist activities.[38] One of Lesser’s strategies supporting his core strategy is â€Å"environmental shaping†, which involves exposing sponsors of terrorism to global scrutiny and isolation; shrinking the â€Å"zones of chaos and terrorist sanctuary; including counterterrorism as an integral component of strategic alliances; limiting global exposure; and targeting terrorist networks and funding. His â€Å"hedging strategy† involves hardening key policies and strategies to limit risks of terrorism, increasing ground and space-based surveillance of terrorist resources, and preparing to mitigate the effects of terrorism to limit negative effects.[39] Kress and associates reiterate the first component of Lesser’s core strategy in offering their proactive approach to dealing with terrorism; specifically, addressing â€Å"genuine political injustice† and resolving â€Å"supposed injustices†.[40] Chalk contends that a state response to terrorism must be â€Å"limited, well-defined and controlled† to avoid compromising â€Å"the political and civil traditions that are central to the liberal democratic way of life†. He suggests that â€Å"any liberal democratic response to terrorism has to rest on one overriding maxim: a commitment to uphold and maintain constitutional principles of law and order†.[41] Conclusion The long history of terrorism, dating as far back as ancient Greece, suggests that this phenomenon may never be eliminated as a tactic by those people or groups without sufficient formal legal power to achieve their goals. However, this does not imply that terrorism cannot be engaged proactively and reactively. Logically, it seems that the first step should be to agree on a universally-accepted definition for terrorism because, without a consensus on the meaning of the term, effectively addressing its causes and its effects may be difficult at best and impossible at worst. With a consensus definition in hand, the comprehensive strategy for dealing with terrorism proposed by Lesser – reduction in systemic causes, deterrence, â€Å"superterrorism† risk reduction, and retaliation – would appear to offer the most balanced, effective approach. Today’s leaders should realise that offensive and defensive military action, so typical of traditional warfare, is quite ineffective as a sole method for dealing with modern forms of terrorism as demonstrated by failures experienced by Israel in dealing with the Palestinian terrorist problem and the greater-than-expected difficulties experienced by the United States, the United Kingdom, and others in ridding the world of radical Islamic terrorists. These efforts may not only fail to ultimately deal effectively with preventing terrorist activities, but may also produce more terrorists who are offended by military actions. Alternatively, a holistic approach – one which includes proacti ve prevention and reactive punishment measures such as the approach advocated by Lesser – should be employed. In any solution to the global problem of terrorism, the cautionary advice offered by Peter Chalk should be considered; that is, political and civil liberties should not be sacrificed in responding to the terrorist threat. For the very way of life the governments of free societies are trying to protect in their attempts to combat terrorism could be compromised by actions that are not limited, well-defined and controlled. Interestingly, this thought was eloquently proffered more than two centuries ago by American inventor, journalist, printer, and statesman Benjamin Franklin in warning that â€Å"[t]hose who would give up essential liberty to purchase a little temporary safety, deserve neither liberty nor safety.† The recommendation, then, is to deal with terrorism in a holistic, balanced manner stressing proactive and reactive measures whilst preserving political and civil liberties. References Bassiouni, M. â€Å"Terrorism, Law Enforcement and the Mass Media: Perspectives, Problems, Proposals†, The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 72:1 (1981). Cited in Thackrah (2004). Bergesen, Albert J., and Han, Yi. â€Å"New Directions for Terrorism Research†. International Journal of Comparative Sociology 46:1-2 (2005). Bite, V. â€Å"International Terrorism†. Foreign Affairs Division, Library of Congress, Appendix of U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on the Judiciary. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1975. Cited in Thackrah (2004). Chalk, Peter. â€Å"The Response to Terrorism as a Threat to Liberal Democracy†. The Australian Journal of Politics and History 44:3 (1998). Chomsky, N. â€Å"U.S. – A Leading Terrorist State†. Monthly Review 53 (2001): 10-19. Cited in Bergesen and Han (2005). Enders, W., and Sandler, T. â€Å"Patterns of Transnational Terrorism, 1970 1999: Alternative Time-Series Estimates†. International Studies Quarterly 46 (2002): 145-65. Cited in Bergesen and Han (2005). Fromkin, David. â€Å"The Strategy of Terrorism†. In Contemporary Terrorism: Selected Readings, John D. Elliot and Leslie K. Gibson, eds. Gaithersburg, Maryland: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1978. Gray, Colin S. Modern Strategy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. Heyman, P. B. Terrorism and America: A Commonsense Strategy for a Democratic Society. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1998. Cited in Thackrah (2004). Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998. Jenkins, B. M. â€Å"Terrorism and Beyond: A 21st Century Perspective†. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 24 (2001): 321-27. Cited in Bergesen and Han. â€Å"New Directions for Terrorism Research†. International Journal of Comparative Sociology 46:1-2 (2005). Kress, Bruce, Livingston, Marius H., and Wanek, Marie G. International Terrorism in the Contemporary World. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1978. Lesser, Ian. â€Å"Countering the New Terrorism: Implications for Strategy†. In Countering the New Terrorism, Hoffman et al., eds. Santa Monica, California: Rand, 1999. Mallin, Jay. â€Å"Terrorism as a Military Weapon†. In Contemporary Terrorism: Selected Readings, John D. Elliot and Leslie K. Gibson, eds. Gaithersburg, Maryland: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1978. Cited in Oots (1986). Oots, Kent Layne. Political Organization Approach to Transnational Terrorism. New York: Greenwood Press, 1986. Ruby, C. L. â€Å"The Definition of Terrorism†. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 2(1) (2002): 9-14. Cited in Bergesen and Han (2005). Terrorism Research Center, What is the Definition of Terrorism? (n.d.) Available from: http://www.terrorism.com. Accessed: 29 November 2005. Thackrah, John Richard. Dictionary of Terrorism. New York: Routledge, 2004. The Columbia Encyclopaedia. â€Å"Terrorism† (2004). Townshend, Charles. Terrorism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Waciorsky, J. La Terrorisme Politique. Paris: A Pedone, 1939. Cited in Thackrah (2004). Whittaker, David J. Terrorists and Terrorism in the Contemporary World. New York: Routledge, 2004. Wilkinson, P. Terrorism versus Democracy: The Liberal State Response. London: Frank Cass, 2000. Cited in Thackrah (2004). Wilkinson, P. â€Å"Three Questions on Terrorism†, Government and Opposition 8:3 (1973). Cited in Thackrah (2004). 1 Footnotes [1] Charles Townshend, Terrorism: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002). [2] John Richard Thackrah, Dictionary of Terrorism (New York: Routledge, 2004). [3] Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 14. [4] Kent Layne Oots, Political Organization Approach to Transnational Terrorism (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986). [5] Terrorism Research Center, â€Å"What is the Definition of Terrorism?† (n.d.), Available from: http://www.terrorism.com, Accessed: 29 November 2005. [6] Townshend (2002). [7] Hoffman (1998). [8] Hoffman (1998). [9] Terrorism Research Center (n.d.). [10] David J. Whittaker, Terrorists and Terrorism in the Contemporary World (New York: Routledge, 2004). [11] Townshend (2002). [12] Thackrah (2004). [13] David Fromkin, â€Å"The Strategy of Terrorism†, in Contemporary Terrorism: Selected Readings, John D. Elliot and Leslie K. Gibson, eds. (Gaithersburg, Maryland: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1978), cited in Oots (1986). [14] V. Bite, â€Å"International Terrorism†, Foreign Affairs Division, Library of Congress, Appendix of U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on the Judiciary (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1975), cited in Thackrah (2004). [15] P. B. Heyman, Terrorism and America: A Commonsense Strategy for a Democratic Society (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1998), cited in Thackrah (2004). [16] M. Bassiouni, â€Å"Terrorism, Law Enforcement and the Mass Media: Perspectives, Problems, Proposals†, The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 72:1 (1981), cited in Thackrah (2004). [17] P. Wilkinson, â€Å"Three Questions on Terrorism†, Government and Opposition 8:3 (1973), cited in Thackrah (2004). [18] Jay Mallin, â€Å"Terrorism as a Military Weapon†, in Contemporary Terrorism: Selected Readings, John D. Elliot and Leslie K. Gibson, eds. (Gaithersburg, Maryland: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1978), cited in Oots (1986). [19] J. Waciorsky, La Terrorisme Politique, (Paris: A Pedone, 1939), cited in Thackrah (2004). [20] P. Wilkinson, Terrorism versus Democracy: The Liberal State Response (London: Frank Cass, 2000), cited in Thackrah (2004). [21] The Columbia Encyclopaedia, â€Å"Terrorism† (2004). [22] N. Chomsky, â€Å"U.S.A Leading Terrorist State†, Monthly Review 53 (2001): 10-19, cited in Bergesen and Han (2005). [23] C. L. Ruby, â€Å"The Definition of Terrorism†, Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 2(1) (2002): 9-14, cited in Bergesen and Han (2005). [24] Whittaker (2004). [25] B. M. Jenkins, â€Å"Terrorism and Beyond: A 21st Century Perspective†, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 24 (2001): 321-27, cited in Bergesen and Han, â€Å"New Directions for Terrorism Research†, International Journal of Comparative Sociology 46:1-2 (2005). [26] W. Enders and T. Sandler, â€Å"Patterns of Transnational Terrorism, 1970 1999: Alternative Time-Series Estimates†, International Studies Quarterly 46 (2002): 145-65, cited in Bergesen and Han (2005). [27] Colin S. Gray, Modern Strategy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999). [28] The Columbia Encyclopaedia (2004). [29] Hoffman (1998). [30] Hoffman (1998). [31] Hoffman (1998). [32] The Columbia Encyclopaedia (2004). [33] Hoffman (1998). [34] N. Chomsky, â€Å"U.S.A Leading Terrorist State†, Monthly Review 53 (2001), cited in Bergesen and Han (2005). [35] Hoffman (1998). [36] Albert J. Bergesen and Yi Han, â€Å"New Directions for Terrorism Research†, International Journal of Comparative Sociology 46:1-2 (2005). [37] Bruce Kress, Marius H. Livingston, and Marie G. Wanek, International Terrorism in the Contemporary World (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1978). [38] Ian Lesser, â€Å"Countering the New Terrorism: Implications for Strategy†, in Hoffman et al., Countering the New Terrorism (Santa Monica, California: Rand, 1999). [39] Lesser (1999). [40] Kress, Livingston, and Wanek (1978). [41] Peter Chalk, â€Å"The Response to Terrorism as a Threat to Liberal Democracy†, The Australian Journal of Politics and History 44:3 (1998).

Impact of Turks and Mongols on the Islamic world Essay

The Turks and Mongols are two races that are an integral part in shaping the Islamic World as we know it today. Their roles in Islamic History are still visible when looking at the Islamic world in the present. The roots of Islam could be traced after the death of The Prophet, Muhammad. The early Islam world was dominated by the Umayyad from Damascus. The Umayyad was in turn succeeded by the Abbasids, which made Baghdad their capital. It was during the two caliphates that a majority of Muslim culture, government and society was established. The years of the Caliphates was known as the Golden Age of Islam. (Wilkinson and Salazar). The Abbasid Caliphate was ended by the Invasion of the Mongols. The Mongols were a nomadic tribe coming from the grasslands of Mongolia, their ruler then, The Great Khan Mongke, ordered his brother to attack the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. (Chaliand and Berrett) Baghdad, the capital of the Islamic world then was captured by Hulagu in 1258. (Bingham) This effectively destroyed most Islamic influence and put an end to the advances of the Golden Age. It became a region known as the Il-Khanate. The early years of the Il Khanate was characterized by persecution of the Muslims in the hands of the Buddhists and Christians in the area. However, when Ghazan, a Buddhist, became Khan, he converted to Islam and the whole region followed suit. Islam made a return as the dominant religion, driving out the Christians and Buddhists. (Halm) Schools and mosques were reestablished and peace again was at hand. (Wilkinson and Salazar) The Mongol Invasion effectively put an end to the Golden age. The various advancements in science, literature, medicine and the arts were in majority obliterated when the invasion occurred. The destruction of libraries, the killing of Muslim scholars and scientists all contributed to the rapid decline of Islamic learning. This was the major factor in the crippling of Muslim advancement in those fields by which at that time they were much more ahead than the West. Almost five hundred years worth of knowledge was obliterated upon the invasion of the Mongols. (Halm) The might and barbarity of the Mongol Hordes checked the advances of a larger empire, albeit one whose priority was not military, but religion and learning. The Ottomans were a group of Turkish tribes which united after being driven south by Mongol invaders. (Stefoff) They derive their name from Osman, who united the clans into a major force. They came into contact and embraced Islam as their faith. They were the frontier soldiers of the Islamic world, guarding against the Mongol Hordes. The invasion of Tamerlane weakened the Ottomans, but they recovered and began to take control of most of the Islam World. (Marozzi) It was under the Ottomans that the Muslims finally entered Constantinople, Turkey, effectively re breaching the barrier between east and west which was ended with the fall of Spain. (Halm) The ottomans were very effective in uniting the diverse people under their thrall. They developed an administrative system whereas religious autonomy was recognized under the sultanates, which greatly facilitated tax collecting. This millet system made the unification of ethically diverse people under a government of Islam not only feasible, but effective. (Stefoff) The Ottoman Empire became a bastion of the Islamic world against the west. At the same time, it was instrumental in allowing western advances in science and technology to reach the Muslim world. The military and economic strength of the empire prevented western influence from entering thru turkey and thus effectively ensured the maintaining of Islamic way of life in Southwest Asia. (Gardner et al. ; Kennedy) It was the ottoman Turks who nearly regained the lost glory of the Muslim Empire. Their management practice of dividing the Islamic world into sultanates, with each sultan acting as autonomous ruler greatly enhanced the stability of the empire. Their military strength secured Islam way of life up until the 1900s. The peak of the Ottoman Empire, under Suleiman, greatly enhanced Islamic way of life, introducing resurgence in Muslim culture and learning. (Meri and Bacharach) The strategic location of the Ottoman Empire gave them control of the land routes between Europe and Asia, thus making them economic powers. The two groups, the Mongols and the Turks, show how an outside force can impact a civilization. In the case on the Mongol Hordes, their impact upon the Islam world effectively retarded its growth, letting the West catch up to its advancement. The invasion brought an end to the Golden Age of Islam; however, it was also Mongols, those that converted, which started the revitalization of the Islamic World. (Gardner et al. ; Kennedy). The Turks also started as a separate ethnic group. However, with their conversion, the Islamic world gained leaders which spearheaded its strengthening, expansion and development. The role of these two groups in Islamic history is both significant, the Mongols in ending the Golden age, and the Turks, in revitalizing the Islamic way of life. References Bingham, Marjorie. â€Å"An Age of Empires, 1200-1750. † (2005): 157 p. Chaliand, Gerard, and A. M. Berrett. â€Å"Nomadic Empires : From Mongolia to the Danube. † (2004): xii, 135 p. Gardner, Robert, et al. Cities of Light the Rise and Fall of Islamic Spain. [videorecording] :. Unity Productions Foundation,, [Potomac Falls, VA? ] :, 2007. Halm, Heinz. â€Å"The Arabs : A Short History. † (2007): vi, 186 p. Kennedy, Hugh. â€Å"The Great Arab Conquests : How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In. † (2007): viii, 421 p. , [16] p. of plates. Marozzi, Justin. â€Å"Tamerlane : Sword of Islam, Conqueror of the World. † (2006): xxiv, 449 p. , [16] p. of plates. Meri, Josef W. , and Jere L. Bacharach. â€Å"Medieval Islamic Civilization : An Encyclopedia. † (2006). Stefoff, Rebecca. â€Å"The Medieval World. † (2005): 48 p. Wilkinson, Philip, and Batul Salazar. â€Å"Islam. † Dorling Kindersley eyewitness books. (2005): 72 p.

A Short Story - 952 Words

Festivities filled the Chamkar Mohn quarter of Phnom Penh; fragrant arrangements of jasmine and chrysanthemum, piles of wild fruits, and vermillion decorations filled every corner of the neighborhood. Petite candles and spherical paper lanterns pushed the glimmer of the stars and moon out of sight and lit the streets as men inside of large tiger costumes performed dances. A roaring of drums and the melody of Chinese-imported instruments filled the air and thundered in my chest. Inside of my house, well-dressed men and women presented themselves to my father with gifts wrapped in silk ribbon, Ang Pao envelopes, fine artwork, and many handcrafted items. The country’s finest bakers and chefs offered golden and sterling silver platters†¦show more content†¦The gentle glistening of the sun fell gracefully on my mother, who looked distressed and dispirited. Putting aside what she was doing, my mother locked her arms around me in a tight embrace. â€Å"Did you pack your old pictures and Taekwondo trophies, son?† my mother asked caringly. â€Å"No, mother. I left them organized in my drawer, so they’ll be here when I return.† I answered. It was almost time for me to leave to the airport with my father, so I said my farewells to my brothers and sisters. My youngest sister, always beaming with energy asked, â€Å"Bong Proh, will you come back? Will you make sure to visit us?† â€Å"Yes, of course I will, Oun. And the next time I see, you will be all grown.† I replied in reassurement. Months had passed, and my father had returned to Cambodia already. I was now living in what felt like a disparate world, brimming with many men and women with pale complexions, who spoke a brash language, lacking in rhythm. California was alien to me--America was alien to me. 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Varied Potentials of Aspergillus Species in Synthesis of...

Conclusions To conclude, though use of Aspergillus species is common in synthesis of metal nanoparticles, these five species are not well studied. Among them, A. fischeri confirms a good quality production of AgNPs at an incredibly low concentration of salt solution used but with more number of bigger sized particles. However, efforts are underway to optimize the conditions in the process to obtain a good size and shape morphology. Also, understanding the protein–nanoparticle interactions during the synthesis mechanism shall guide us to the possibility of utilizing the present system as future ‘‘nano-factories’’. We aim to purify and characterize the proteins to comprehend their mode of action and possible interactions with silver†¦show more content†¦Characterization Change in color was visually observed in the silver nitrate solution incubated with all five Aspergillus species. The bio reduction of Ag+ in the aqueous solutions was screened by sampling of aliquots at different time intervals. Absorption measurements were carried out on Thermo-scientific UV-Visible Spectrophotometer from 200-800nm, at a resolution of 1 nm. A part of the dried powdered sample was analysed by X-ray diffractometer as a preliminary confirmative method of the presence of silver nanoparticles. The X-ray diffractometer (Rigaku Miniflex-11) was operated at a voltage of 30 kV and a current of 15mA with CuKÃŽ ± radiation (ÃŽ »=1.5406 Ã…) and at 2 theta angles, intensities were recorded from 6 °to 60 °. To know the size of synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), size distribution analysis was performed using dynamic light scattering in aqueous solution. The hydrodynamic size of the silver nanoparticles was obtained using a Zeta-sizer (Malvern) instrument applying a 660 nm laser. The software was optimized to report summary statistics based upon the intensity of light scattered. Two milliliter sample volumes from each nanosilver dispersion were loaded into glass cuvettes and summary statistics were obtained using triplicate 2 minutes analyses (total analysis time=6minutes). For Fourier transform

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Middle Cerebral Artery Stroke Health And Social Care Essay Free Essays

string(128) " jobs particularly in respect to interaction between Mrs Carroll and the physical and societal environment \( Lindley 2008 \) \." Stroke is a complex neurovascular disease caused by multiple mechanisms that result in a break of normal intellectual blood flow. Harmonizing to Kockrow and Christensen ( 2011 ) , ischemic in-between intellectual arteria shot is an unnatural status of the blood vass in the encephalon, characterised by bleeding into the encephalon of the formation of an embolus or thrombus that occludes the in-between intellectual arteria, ensuing in ischemia of the encephalon tissue usually perfused by the damaged cells. The in-between intellectual arteria supplies the largest volume of the cerebral hemisphere, including the basal ganglia, the internal capsule, and the ocular radiations from the thalamus ( Mitchell A ; Moore 2004 ) . We will write a custom essay sample on Middle Cerebral Artery Stroke Health And Social Care Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now The disrupted blood flow in the MCA causes intellectual disfunction. Cerebral blood flow has an autoregulatory mechanism that protects against hypoxia and low perfusion ( Johnson 2012 ) . When intellectual blood flow decreases, there is addition in blood force per unit area and vasodilation occurs as the autoregulatory mechanism attempt to counterbalance ( Johnson 2012 ) . If the blood flow falls below a critical degree, intellectual blood volume is reduced and infarction occurs. Johnson ( 2012 ) explains that the deficiency of foods usually received from oxygenated blood and the harm which is caused by unexpected shed blooding into or around the encephalon taking to cell decease. Cerebral ischaemia initiates a figure of damaging cellular events enduring which consequence in monolithic cell decease and tissue harm beyond the country originally affected by the deficiency of blood flow ( Kockrow A ; Christensen 2011 ) .Tissue plasminogen activator is a serine peptidase which converts plasminogen to plasmin, a fibrinolytic enzyme ( McElveen A ; Macko 2009 ) . Upon disposal, recombinant TPA increases plasmin enzymatic activity, ensuing in fibrinolysis ( Harvey 2009 ) . It is used to handle the shot in the acute phase to reconstruct flow to the ischaemic country. In ischemic stroke the dead or deceasing cells are surrounded by the penumbra-an country of cells at hazard of or enduring ischemia as explained by Harvey ( 2009 ) . Cells busying the penumbra are ill perfused and as a consequence become progressively ischemic ( Mitchell A ; Moore 2004 ) . Circulation can be improved when TPA is administered within 3 hours in an acute ischemic shot ( Elkind 2009 ) . This will besides assist to understate decease cells in the penumbra. Collins ( 2007 ) states that the usage of TPA halts the shot by fade outing the coagulum that is barricading blood flow to the encephalon. When suitably administered to patients who fall within narrow clinical guidelines, TPA can restrict the extent of encephalon hurt and better results after shot ( Johnson 2012 ) . Describe the functions of four members of the multidisciplinary squad ( other than nursing ) who will care for Mrs Carroll. The function of the squad is to supply holistic attention which realistically develops of import ends for Mrs Carroll and her household, whilst testing for shot complications and trouble-shooting as jobs nowadayss. Address Diagnosticians The address healers have established function for measuring swallow map every bit good as address ( Lindley 2008 ) . Regular address therapy can better the result after shot. Therapy begins without hold after a shot ( ideally the following on the job twenty-four hours ) and involves Sessionss of 1-2 hours per twenty-four hours as explained by Funnel, Koutoukidis A ; Lawrence 2009. The address healers are concerned with assessing, naming and handling communicating upsets, such as formation and perceptual experience of address, the ability to joint words and to understand and originate address ( Freeman 1998 ) . The address healer will help Mrs Carroll to re learn communicating accomplishments. The address diagnostician will besides intercede closely with the nurse, dietician and household to accomplish safe swallowing schemes for Mrs Carroll. Physical therapists The physical therapists will measure Mrs Carroll physical capablenesss and restrictions in a collaborative procedure ( Funnel, Koutoukidis A ; Lawrence 2009 ) . The physical therapist administers therapies designed to rectify or understate malformation, addition strength and mobility or relieve uncomfortableness or hurting ( William, Perry A ; Watkins 2010 ) . Stroke rehabilitation comprises of exercising intercession, to understate the effects of the encephalon cell harm and optimise re-learning as stated by Lindley ( 2008 ) . William, Perry A ; Watkins ( 2010 ) explain that the interventions include the usage of specific exercisings, heat, cold, aqua therapy and electro physical therapy. The function of the physical therapist besides involves educating Mrs Carroll and her household in right methods of placement, reassigning and call uping to help with the discharge. Occupational healers The occupational healers aim is to help Mrs Carroll to be independent in executing activities of day-to-day life ( Lindley 2008 ) . Freeman ( 1998 ) explains that the occupational healers will find Mrs Carroll ‘s ability to execute basic activities of life such as lavation, dressing and feeding. Their function includes the appraisal of basic and more advanced functional activities ( Funnel, Koutoukidis A ; Lawrence 2009 ) . The occupational healer plants on specific undertakings in coaction with nursing staff and physical therapists ( William, Perry A ; Watkins 2010 ) . This involves a period of appraisal including the ability to understand instructions followed by specific preparation in basic ADLS ( William, Perry A ; Watkins 2010 ) . As Mrs Carroll has adequate motor recovery to keep sitting balance the occupational healer starts working on basic lavation ( e.g. rinsing the face, cleaning dentitions ) . As recovery returns, more complex undertakings can be assessed and pr actised such as showers transportations, acquiring on and off the lavatory. The occupational healers assess the demand for, and supply, adaptative devices to advance independency with bathing, eating and dressing. Home alterations are besides assessed by the occupational healers to guarantee that the place environment is safe and contributing to Mrs Carroll ‘s independency degree as elucidated by Funnel, Koutoukidis A ; Lawrence 2009. Psychologists Psychologist has an of import function in assisting Mrs Carroll towards a successful recovery. Their expertness is peculiarly utile in measuring temper, depression and assisting Mrs Carroll through hard accommodation periods by pull offing her choler and other hurt ( Funnel, Koutoukidis A ; Lawrence 2009 ) . The psychologist is concerned with the causes, bar and intervention of the single societal jobs particularly in respect to interaction between Mrs Carroll and the physical and societal environment ( Lindley 2008 ) . You read "Middle Cerebral Artery Stroke Health And Social Care Essay" in category "Essay examples" The psychologists will help the rehabilitation squad with schemes to pull off Mrs Carroll ‘s behavioral perturbations that impact on the twenty-four hours to twenty-four hours rehabilitation procedure ( Freeman 1998 ) . 3. Describe the schemes that may assist active engagement of the patient and household in the rehabilitation plan. The active engagement of Mrs Carroll and her household has a important function to play after her shot. Their support will be of great comfort for Mrs Carroll and when the shot has caused major jobs, their aid in the recovery procedure is a cardinal portion of good shot attention ( Funnel, Koutoukidis A ; Lawrence 2009 ) . The household need to understand and be involved with the rehabilitative ends that Mrs Carroll has developed with the squad and the methods selected to run into these ends as explained by William, Perry A ; Watkins ( 2010 ) . This can include acquiring the household members to reenforce peculiar preparation Sessionss and developing the household to pull off Mrs Carroll with a position to dispatch for illustration learning techniques to reassign Mrs Carroll from bed to wheelchair or acquiring Mrs Carroll into a attention safely ( Funnel, Koutoukidis A ; Lawrence 2009 ) . This will enable them to experience that they are playing a critical function in rehabilitati on. Family members need to understand that their greatest part may be to let Mrs Carroll to be every bit independent as possible ( Gillespie A ; Campbell 2011 ) . Another scheme that will assist the active engagement of the household is household conference with the multidisciplinary squad and the physician where they will have specific information on the type of shot that affected Mrs Carroll and about her advancement as illustrated by Popovich, Fox, A ; Bandagi ( 2007 ) . Working with Mrs Carroll and her household will assist Mrs Carroll to accomplish realistic ends in their shot journey. It is besides really of import to learn the household techniques to heighten safety and communicating ( Funnel, Koutoukidis A ; Lawrence 2009 ) . Family members can besides supply valuable information about Mrs Carroll ‘s usual life style. The household members can help in reorienting Mrs Carroll to the affected side and implementing safety safeguards. It is besides of import for the hou sehold to be cognizant of the shortages and intercessions appropriate for Mrs Carroll ( Lindley 2008 ) . 4. Mrs Carroll ‘s defeat with motor activities and address make her angry. Discuss how choler may be used to ease effectual header and how rehabilitation nurses can enable patients to utilize their energy therapeutically. Nursing intercessions to ease emotional accommodation to stroke should include hearing, detering self-blame, promoting Mrs Carroll to verbalize her feelings, advancing independency, assisting Mrs Carroll reappraise her state of affairs, and show credence and acknowledgment of her advancement as highlighted by William, Perry A ; Watkins ( 2010 ) .It is of import that early marks of uneffective header to be detected so that patients at hazard for depression may be assessed and treated. The psychologist can besides help in supplying get bying schemes for nurse and speech healer to pull off Mrs Carroll ‘s defeat and choler ( Funnel, Koutoukidis A ; Lawrence 2009 ) . By back uping Mrs Carroll, instead than taking her, the nurse can assist her to gain her restrictions, consolidate loss and authorise her to be after for a hereafter that will be fulfilling to her.The construct of hope can be characterized by an unsure desire to accomplish ends that will let Mrs Carroll to set and tra vel end stations when transmutations occur as explained by Western ( 2007 ) . An achieved end or success against a nerve-racking experience creates an immediate sense of peace and good being and a generalized hope emerges for future successes harmonizing to Popovich, Fox, A ; Bandagi ( 2007 ) . Hope is of import to recovery as it gives persons the motive and strength to accomplish their ends ( Western 2007 ) . Empowerment so can be seen as a agency of assisting persons to recognize and accomplish their ends. Mrs Carroll becomes frustrated when she can non pass on, but alternatively of retreating from the conversation the nurse should promote her to do regular efforts to pass on with the squad and household. Hence her address will better daily and this will assist to accomplish her set ends ( ( Funnel, Koutoukidis A ; Lawrence 2009 ) . 5. Describe the medicines that Mrs Carroll is taking and discourse the grounds for administrating these medicines in his current status. Why should a cholesterin lowing agent be considered for Mrs Carroll? Metformin Harmonizing to Tiziani ( 2010 ) , Mrs Carroll was prescribed Glucophage as she has a history of Type 2 diabetes. Metformin acts chiefly by diminishing the production of glucose in the liver as described by Bullock and Manias ( 2011 ) . It besides slows soaking up of glucose signifier the intestine, inhibits glucagon secernment and tissue glycolisis ( Lindley 2008 ) . This medicine is prescribed when the blood sugar degree can non be controlled with diet alone ( Lindley 2008 ) . Avapro HCT This medicine is used to handle mild to chair high blood pressure explained by Tiziani ( 2010 ) . The combination of a thiazide water pill ( hydochlorothiazide ) and angiotensin receptor adversary produces a greater decrease in blood force per unit area ( Tiziani 2010 ) .Irbesartan blocks the potent vasoconstrictive and aldosterone-secreting effects of angiotonin II by selective hostility of the angiotonin II receptors localized on vascular smooth musculus cells and in the adrenal cerebral mantle ( Bullock A ; Manias 2011 ) . Hydrochlorothiazide increases plasma renin activity, increases aldosterone secernment, and decreases serum K. Coadministration of an angiotonin II receptor adversary tends to change by reversal the K loss associated with thiazide water pills ( Bullock A ; Manias 2011 ) . This medicine will assist to take down Mrs Carroll ‘s blood force per unit area. Clopridogrel This medicine is used to forestall thromboembolic events, ischemic bosom disease and bar of shot ( Tiziani 2010 ) . Harmonizing to Bullock and Manias ( 2011 ) , it inhibits thrombocyte collection by irreversibly adhering to adenosine disphosphate thrombocyte receptor. Mrs Carroll has a past history of atrial fibrillation and she has a high hazard of shot from embolisation of cardiac thrombus ( Freeman 1998 ) . This medicine will cut down the hazard of holding a shot. Mrs Carroll ‘s LDL cholesterin degree is high and this increases the hazard of ischemic shot and bosom disease ( Lindley 2008 ) . A cholesterin take downing agent should be considered for Mrs Carroll to assist forestall farther vascular disease ( Mitchell A ; Moore 2004 ) . William, Perry A ; Watkins ( 2010 ) explain that the lower the blood cholesterin, the lower the subsequent hazard of ischemic shot and other thrombotic vascular disease. The cholesterin take downing agent has the ability to brace atheromatic plaque, cut down thrombogenicity every bit good as its consequence on dyslipidaemia ( Tiziani 2010 ) . 6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of get downing Mrs Carroll on medicine to command her urinary incontinency? Harmonizing to Bullock and Manias ( 2011 ) , anticholinergics interfere with the parasympathetic excitations of the detrusor musculus by barricading the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, ensuing in fewer nonvoluntary contractions ( . One of the disadvantages of utilizing medicine to command her urinary incontinency is that it causes hazard of mental confusion ( Tiziani 2010 ) . Her cognitive operation has decreased since she had the autumn, hence this medicine will do it worse. Anticholinergics medicine additions hazard of terrible irregularity, Mrs Carroll suffers from irregularity already this medicine will increase the hazard of holding intestine obstructor. Furthermore, bladder preparation can better urinary incontinency and encouraging Mrs Carroll to utilize medicine will cut down her independency and motive ( Lindley 2008 ) . Mrs Carroll might experience embarrassed to go to therapy due to her urinary incontinency. Therefore she could decline therapy and this will non assist in the recovery procedure. Urinary incontinency may do clamber dislocation and roseola due to extra of wet in the genital-perineal country ( Borleis 2012 ) . This medicine will besides cut down the hazard of Mrs Carroll acquiring a urinary piece of land infection as she would non necessitate to travel to the lavatory more frequently. Furthermore, good continency attention plays a cardinal function in assisting to reconstruct Mrs Carroll self esteem and independency ( Freeman 1998 ) . The medicine will besides assist Mrs Carroll to come on with vesica preparation ( William, Perry A ; Watkins ( 2010 ) . 7. Mrs Carroll had a strong spiritual religion prior to her shot but has since refused to see the Priest or members of her church. What intercessions might you implement to assist her recover her religious well being? Mrs Carroll might be embarrassed to run into her friends due to her status. First I would try to find the ground ( s ) for the hurt, and back up the Mrs Carroll to analyze her beliefs and values ( Tanyi 2006 ) . Supply research-based grounds to Mrs Carroll about the positive impacts of spiritualty on her wellness and operation ( Tanyi 2006 ) . Spending one on one clip with her and assist her to reflect back on her past religious well being might assist in cut downing her religious hurting.I would mention Mrs Carroll to a societal worker who may mention her farther to a psychologist ( Lindley 2008 ) . Her religious well being might non be straight related to her faith. Involve her in a speculation group with other patients who had stroke to assist her talk about her state of affairs. I would easy present one friend at a clip and see how she reacts to that. It is besides really of import to let Mrs Carroll to grief for the loss of what her life was and guarantee that she is cognizant t hat the nurse is at that place to assist her. Pastoral attention services are inter-denominational and will be able to offer religious attention to Mrs Carroll ( Funnel, Koutoukidis A ; Lawrence 2009 ) . 8. How does the nurse utilise patient information obtained during admittance to help in the acknowledgment of discharge demands? What community resources would you see to assist Mrs Carroll and her hubby? A thorough nursing appraisal obtained during admittance enables the nurse to place existent and possible jobs of Mrs Carroll ( Fawcett A ; Rhynas 2012 ) . Discharge planning is critical to advance good being and maximal recovery ( Freeman 1998 ) . On admittance, it was identified that Mr Carroll is really dependent on his married woman and that he is due for an operation in two hebdomads. Furthermore, they live in a two floor three sleeping rooms townhouse which will non be ideal for her when she come back from infirmary due to her limited mobility. To guarantee continuity of attention, the interdisciplinary procedure start on admittance by interceding with the societal worker, occupational healer, physical therapist and societal web as explained by Lindley ( 2008 ) . Mrs Carroll is active in the community and she besides has supportive friends within the Parish Community. The community can besides organize a support group for shot patients to run into other people from the communit y who understand what you have been through. A resource battalion can be developed for Mr Carroll supplying inside informations of community services and benefits available. On discharge, guarantee good links and information sharing between the infirmary and community squads, and between wellness and societal attention suppliers. Arrange chances for shot subsisters and households to run into cardinal community staff such as territory nurses and stroke affair nurses before discharge ( Gillespie A ; Campbell 2011 ) . 9. Mrs Carroll was an active member of his community but now has limited address. Describe any schemes you could utilize to help communicating and the discharge instruction you would supply to her hubby sing her communication with others in societal state of affairss. Communication troubles can significantly impact quality of life and cause hurt and defeat for households, friends and the patient ( Speech Pathology Services 2012 ) . A broad scope of schemes can back up communicating such as taking distractions when speaking to the patient as explained by Speech Pathology Services 2012. The usage of different sorts of communicating such as gesture, indicating or composing will assist to understand Mrs Carroll ( William, Perry A ; Watkins 2010 ) . The nurse should explicate to Mr Carroll that it is really of import to talk in short sentences, easy and in a respectful tone with normal volume. When pass oning with Mrs Carroll, the individual should let excess clip to treat the information and repetition the message or state it in another manner ( Speech Pathology Services 2012 ) . The usage of communicating devices will besides advance comprehension and apprehension ( Freeman 1998 ) . Communicating with his married woman could be really frustrating, i t really of import for him to stay unagitated and patient. It is indispensable to supply accessible information for Mrs Carroll and her household on the peculiar type of address damage that Mrs Carroll has to heighten apprehension and assistance communicating ( William, Perry A ; Watkins 2010 ) . 10. Complete an admittance and discharge FIM for Mrs Carroll Please see affiliated How to cite Middle Cerebral Artery Stroke Health And Social Care Essay, Essay examples

Mass Merchandisers Small Retailers free essay sample

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