Terrorism: Definition, History and Solutions

Terrorism: Definition, History and Solutions TERRORISM:  AN EXPLORATION OF ITS DEFINITION, HISTORY, AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS â€Å"Terrorism upsets people. It does so deliberately. That is its point, and that is why it has engrossed so much of our attention in the early years of the 21st century.† Townshend [1] Ask any ten individuals on the streets of London, Paris, Moscow, or New York for the top three issues facing the world today and one common response is likely to be terrorism. Inquire further about how the same people would define terrorism, when terrorism began, and how terrorism can be stopped and you will probably be faced with a myriad of answers, or maybe just looks of puzzlement. The range of responses (or lack thereof) from the public should not be surprising. Not even experts agree on responses to these seemingly fundamental questions on an issue of such importance to worldwide security, an issue that Thackrah suggests is â€Å"one of the most intractable global problems at the start of the twenty-first century†.[2] This essay begins by surveying the vast array of definitions for the term terrorism, providing some insight into the reasons that terrorism is so difficult for experts to define, and adopting a working definition for the term. The historical roots of terrorism will then be explored and results of a review of selected literature on possible solutions for dealing with terrorism will be introduced. Finally, a conclusion discussing the results of the literature review will be presented. Terrorism Defined What is terrorism? The definition assigned to the term very much depends on who you ask, although, as Hoffman writes, â€Å"few words have so insidiously worked their way in to our everyday vocabulary†.[3] Oots writes that terrorism has been defined in different ways by various scholars.[4] Hoffman suggests that most individuals have vague notions of what the term means, but cannot offer precise, explanatory definitions. The Terrorism Research Center claims that â€Å"[t]errorism by nature is difficult to define†.[5] Townshend writes that both politicians and scholars have been â€Å"hung up† in attempting to define terrorism in a way that distinguishes it from other criminal violence and even military action.[6] Complicating attempts to define terrorism, the meaning and usage of the term have changed over the years.[7] Complications aside, most people would agree that terrorism is a subjective term with negative connotations, a pejorative term, used to describe the acts of enemies or opponents. The term has moral connotations and can be used to persuade others to adopt a particular viewpoint. For instance, if an individual sympathises with the victims of terrorism, then the perpetrator is considered to be a terrorist, but if an individual sympathises with the perpetrator, then the perpetrator is considered to be a freedom fighter or is referred to by equally positive characterisations.[8] About this, the Terrorism Research Center writes: â€Å"One man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter.†[9] Whittaker distinguishes between terrorists, guerrillas, and freedom fighters in writing: â€Å"the terrorist targets civilians†; â€Å"the guerrilla goes for military personnel and facilities†; and â€Å"the freedom fighter conducts a campaign to liberate his people from dictatorial oppression, gross disarmament, or the grip of an occupying power†.[10] One author included over one hundred definitions for the term terrorism.[11] Another quoted over ninety definitions and descriptions.[12] The definitions range from those that are quite simplistic to those that are equally comprehensive. The following definitions are illustrative of the broad range of thought: Terrorism is â€Å"violence for purposes of creating fear†.[13] Terrorism is â€Å"politically and socially motivated violence†.[14] â€Å"Terrorism is political violence in or against true democracies.†[15] â€Å"Terrorism may be described as a strategy of violence designed to inspire terror within a particular segment of a given society.†[16] â€Å"Terrorism is the most amoral of organised violence†.[17] Terrorism is â€Å"a form of warfare†¦used when full-scale military action is not possible†.[18] â€Å"Terrorism is a method of action by which an agent tends to produce terror in order to impose his domination.†[19] â€Å"Terrorism is the systematic use of coercive intimidation, usually to service political ends. It is used to create a climate of fear.[20] Terrorism is â€Å"the threat or use of violence, often against the civilian population, to achieve political or social ends, to intimidate opponents, or to publicise grievances†.[21] â€Å"Terrorism is the use of coercive means aimed at populations in an effort to achieve political, religious, or other aims.†[22] Terrorism is â€Å"politically motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience†.[23] Whittaker explores the complexity of defining terrorism by furnishing a comprehensive list of terrorism criteria:[24] The violence or threat of violence inherent in terrorism is premeditated and politically motivated for the purpose of intimidating or coercing a government or the public in general. The strategy of terrorism is to instil fear and insecurity. Sustained campaigns or sporadic incidents are applied by terrorists in conducting their unlawful activities. Calculated use of violence is applied against civilian, non-combatant targets. Acquiring, manipulating, and employing power is at the root of terrorism. Revolutionary terrorism attempts to completely change the political system within a state; sub-revolutionary terrorism attempts to effect change without totally replacing the existing political system. Terrorism consists of carefully planned goals, means, targets, and access conducted in a clandestine manner. The goals of terrorism focus on political, social, ideological, or religious ends. This distinguishes terrorism from other criminal activity. Terrorism is conducted occasionally by individuals, but most often by sub-national groups. An important objective of terrorism is to obtain maximum publicity. Increasingly, terrorist â€Å"zones of action† are extending beyond national borders, becoming transnational in effect. The vast number of definitions proposed for the term terrorism might make one wonder if there could ever be agreement around a common definition. For without a common understanding about what terrorism is, how can it be challenged and ultimately removed as a threat to modern civilisation? Despite the many definitions for terrorism, there does seem to be an emerging consensus on the definition of the term, according to Jenkins.[25] For instance, Enders and Sandler offer the following comprehensive definition of terrorism: â€Å"Terrorism is the premeditated use or threat of use of extranormal violence or brutality by subnational groups to obtain a political, religious, or ideological objective through intimidation of a huge audience, usually not directly involved with the policy making that terrorists seek to influence.†[26] Enders and Sandler’s definition will be used for the purpose of this essay not only because it is an example of a current consensus description, but also because it contains criteria suggested by other definitions surveyed in the literature review – violence or threats of violence; intimidation of large civilian audiences; desire to influence; subnational terrorist groupings; and political, religious, or ideological objectives. Historical Roots of Terrorism Colin Gray writes that terrorism â€Å"is as old as strategic history†.[27] The roots of terrorism can be traced back in time to ancient Greece, and terrorist acts have occurred throughout history since that time. The term terrorism, however, originated in the French Revolution’s Reign of Terror [28] and was popularised at that time.[29] Terrorism in this era carried a very positive connotation as it was undertaken in an effort to establish order during the anarchy that followed uprisings in France in 1789. It was considered to be an instrument of governance instituted to intimidate counter-revolutionaries, dissidents and subversives and was associated with the ideals of democracy and virtue. In fact, according to Hoffman, the revolutionary leader Maximillien Robespierre claimed that â€Å"virtue, without which terror is evil; terror, without which virtue is helpless† and that â€Å"[t]error is nothing but justice, prompt, severe and inflexible; it is therefore an emanation of virtue†.[30] Terrorism at the start of the twentieth century retained the revolutionary connotations it had acquired during the French Revolution as it took aim on the Ottoman and Habsburg Empires. In the 1930s, the meaning of terrorism mutated to describe activities of totalitarian governments and their leaders against their citizenry in Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Stalinist Russia. For instance, in Germany and Italy, gangs of â€Å"brown shirts† or â€Å"black shirts† harassed and intimidated opponents, although leaders of these nations denied that this occurred. After World War II, the meaning of terrorism changed once again, returning to its revolutionary connotations where it remains today. Terrorist activities in the 1940s and 1950s primarily focused on revolts by indigenous nationalist groups opposing colonial rule in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, resulting in independence for many countries. Although terrorism retained its revolutionary connotation in the 1960s and 1970s, the focus shifted from anti-colonialist to separatist goals. Today, terrorism involves broader, less distinct goals.[31] The right-wing and left-wing terrorism that became widespread in recent times included acts by diverse groups such as the Italian Red Brigades; the Irish Republican Army; the Palestine Liberation Organisation; the Shining Path in Peru; the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in Sri Lanka; the Weatherman in the United States; various â€Å"militia† organisations, also in the United States; radical Muslims through Hamas and Al Quaeda; radical Sikhs in India; and the Aum Shinrikyo in Japan.[32] Some governments, such as those in Iran, Iraq, Libya, and Syria, are also considered to be involved in terrorism as sponsors of terrorist activities.[33] Some people, such as American dissident Noam Chomsky, contend that the government of the United States is engaged in terrorism, as exemplified by the title of Chomsky’s 2001 article entitled â€Å"U.S.â₠¬â€A Leading Terrorist State†, which appeared in the Monthly Review[34]. Terrorism associated with the French Revolution had two important characteristics in common with terrorism today. Firstly, terrorism was, and is today, organised, deliberate, and systematic. Secondly, the goals of terrorism then and now were and are to create a new, better society.[35] But, terrorism today has changed in some very fundamental ways: (1) terrorist organisations have evolved into network forms and are less often organised in hierarchies; (2) the identities of transnational terrorist organisations are harder to identify because they claim responsibility for specific acts less often; (3) today’s terrorist groups do not make demands as often as in the past and their goals appear to be more hazy and vague; (4) motives have generally shifted from those that are more politically-oriented to those that are more religiously-oriented; (5) targets of terrorists are more dispersed around the globe; and (6) terrorist violence, today, is more indiscriminate, involving signifi cant collateral damage to the public.[36] With this historical foundation, particularly the description of the evolution of terrorism into its current form, the focus now shifts to possible solutions to dealing with the issue today. Possible Solutions to Terrorism To effectively meet the challenges of terrorism, one should consider the history of terrorism, but must also look to the future. Kress and colleagues contend that terrorism is increasing in â€Å"geographical scope, numerical frequency, and intensity† as well as in â€Å"ingenuity and subtlety†. They suggest that these trends could well translate into more varied threats and more powerful tools and weapons, adding that â€Å"bombs will get smaller and more powerful, poisons and mind-blowing drugs more insidious, psychological techniques for converting or brainwashing the victims more effective, and psychological tortures more agonizing.†[37] Ian Lesser offers a comprehensive approach for meeting the challenges of terrorism. His approach consists of a core strategy and supporting strategies aimed at targeting security threats posed by terrorists within a context of global security threats from all sources. Lesser’s core strategy consists of four components: (1) reducing systemic causes of terrorism, (2) deterring terrorists and their sponsors, (3) reducing risks associated with â€Å"superterrorism†, and (4) retaliating in instances where deterrence fails. In reducing system causes of terrorism, Lesser is referring to the long-term goal of addressing issues that give rise to terrorism such as social and economic problems, unresolved ethnic and nationalist conflicts, frustrated political ambitions, and personal experiences of individuals who may become future terrorists. In deterring terrorists and their sponsors, Lesser suggests taking â€Å"massive and personal† actions against terrorist leadership, although he concedes that this is becoming more and more difficult as terrorists and their sponsors become more diverse and diffuse. In reducing risks associated with â€Å"superterrorism†, Lesser calls for eliminating weapons of mass destruction that terrorists could use in inflicting destruction and suffering. And, finally, in retaliating when deterrence fails, Lesser suggests developing the means to retaliate quickly and specifically to terrorist activities.[38] One of Lesser’s strategies supporting his core strategy is â€Å"environmental shaping†, which involves exposing sponsors of terrorism to global scrutiny and isolation; shrinking the â€Å"zones of chaos and terrorist sanctuary; including counterterrorism as an integral component of strategic alliances; limiting global exposure; and targeting terrorist networks and funding. His â€Å"hedging strategy† involves hardening key policies and strategies to limit risks of terrorism, increasing ground and space-based surveillance of terrorist resources, and preparing to mitigate the effects of terrorism to limit negative effects.[39] Kress and associates reiterate the first component of Lesser’s core strategy in offering their proactive approach to dealing with terrorism; specifically, addressing â€Å"genuine political injustice† and resolving â€Å"supposed injustices†.[40] Chalk contends that a state response to terrorism must be â€Å"limited, well-defined and controlled† to avoid compromising â€Å"the political and civil traditions that are central to the liberal democratic way of life†. He suggests that â€Å"any liberal democratic response to terrorism has to rest on one overriding maxim: a commitment to uphold and maintain constitutional principles of law and order†.[41] Conclusion The long history of terrorism, dating as far back as ancient Greece, suggests that this phenomenon may never be eliminated as a tactic by those people or groups without sufficient formal legal power to achieve their goals. However, this does not imply that terrorism cannot be engaged proactively and reactively. Logically, it seems that the first step should be to agree on a universally-accepted definition for terrorism because, without a consensus on the meaning of the term, effectively addressing its causes and its effects may be difficult at best and impossible at worst. With a consensus definition in hand, the comprehensive strategy for dealing with terrorism proposed by Lesser – reduction in systemic causes, deterrence, â€Å"superterrorism† risk reduction, and retaliation – would appear to offer the most balanced, effective approach. Today’s leaders should realise that offensive and defensive military action, so typical of traditional warfare, is quite ineffective as a sole method for dealing with modern forms of terrorism as demonstrated by failures experienced by Israel in dealing with the Palestinian terrorist problem and the greater-than-expected difficulties experienced by the United States, the United Kingdom, and others in ridding the world of radical Islamic terrorists. These efforts may not only fail to ultimately deal effectively with preventing terrorist activities, but may also produce more terrorists who are offended by military actions. Alternatively, a holistic approach – one which includes proacti ve prevention and reactive punishment measures such as the approach advocated by Lesser – should be employed. In any solution to the global problem of terrorism, the cautionary advice offered by Peter Chalk should be considered; that is, political and civil liberties should not be sacrificed in responding to the terrorist threat. For the very way of life the governments of free societies are trying to protect in their attempts to combat terrorism could be compromised by actions that are not limited, well-defined and controlled. Interestingly, this thought was eloquently proffered more than two centuries ago by American inventor, journalist, printer, and statesman Benjamin Franklin in warning that â€Å"[t]hose who would give up essential liberty to purchase a little temporary safety, deserve neither liberty nor safety.† The recommendation, then, is to deal with terrorism in a holistic, balanced manner stressing proactive and reactive measures whilst preserving political and civil liberties. References Bassiouni, M. â€Å"Terrorism, Law Enforcement and the Mass Media: Perspectives, Problems, Proposals†, The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 72:1 (1981). Cited in Thackrah (2004). Bergesen, Albert J., and Han, Yi. â€Å"New Directions for Terrorism Research†. International Journal of Comparative Sociology 46:1-2 (2005). Bite, V. â€Å"International Terrorism†. Foreign Affairs Division, Library of Congress, Appendix of U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on the Judiciary. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1975. Cited in Thackrah (2004). Chalk, Peter. â€Å"The Response to Terrorism as a Threat to Liberal Democracy†. The Australian Journal of Politics and History 44:3 (1998). Chomsky, N. â€Å"U.S. – A Leading Terrorist State†. Monthly Review 53 (2001): 10-19. Cited in Bergesen and Han (2005). Enders, W., and Sandler, T. â€Å"Patterns of Transnational Terrorism, 1970 1999: Alternative Time-Series Estimates†. International Studies Quarterly 46 (2002): 145-65. Cited in Bergesen and Han (2005). Fromkin, David. â€Å"The Strategy of Terrorism†. In Contemporary Terrorism: Selected Readings, John D. Elliot and Leslie K. Gibson, eds. Gaithersburg, Maryland: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1978. Gray, Colin S. Modern Strategy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. Heyman, P. B. Terrorism and America: A Commonsense Strategy for a Democratic Society. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1998. Cited in Thackrah (2004). Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998. Jenkins, B. M. â€Å"Terrorism and Beyond: A 21st Century Perspective†. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 24 (2001): 321-27. Cited in Bergesen and Han. â€Å"New Directions for Terrorism Research†. International Journal of Comparative Sociology 46:1-2 (2005). Kress, Bruce, Livingston, Marius H., and Wanek, Marie G. International Terrorism in the Contemporary World. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1978. Lesser, Ian. â€Å"Countering the New Terrorism: Implications for Strategy†. In Countering the New Terrorism, Hoffman et al., eds. Santa Monica, California: Rand, 1999. Mallin, Jay. â€Å"Terrorism as a Military Weapon†. In Contemporary Terrorism: Selected Readings, John D. Elliot and Leslie K. Gibson, eds. Gaithersburg, Maryland: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1978. Cited in Oots (1986). Oots, Kent Layne. Political Organization Approach to Transnational Terrorism. New York: Greenwood Press, 1986. Ruby, C. L. â€Å"The Definition of Terrorism†. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 2(1) (2002): 9-14. Cited in Bergesen and Han (2005). Terrorism Research Center, What is the Definition of Terrorism? (n.d.) Available from: http://www.terrorism.com. Accessed: 29 November 2005. Thackrah, John Richard. Dictionary of Terrorism. New York: Routledge, 2004. The Columbia Encyclopaedia. â€Å"Terrorism† (2004). Townshend, Charles. Terrorism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Waciorsky, J. La Terrorisme Politique. Paris: A Pedone, 1939. Cited in Thackrah (2004). Whittaker, David J. Terrorists and Terrorism in the Contemporary World. New York: Routledge, 2004. Wilkinson, P. Terrorism versus Democracy: The Liberal State Response. London: Frank Cass, 2000. Cited in Thackrah (2004). Wilkinson, P. â€Å"Three Questions on Terrorism†, Government and Opposition 8:3 (1973). Cited in Thackrah (2004). 1 Footnotes [1] Charles Townshend, Terrorism: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002). [2] John Richard Thackrah, Dictionary of Terrorism (New York: Routledge, 2004). [3] Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 14. [4] Kent Layne Oots, Political Organization Approach to Transnational Terrorism (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986). [5] Terrorism Research Center, â€Å"What is the Definition of Terrorism?† (n.d.), Available from: http://www.terrorism.com, Accessed: 29 November 2005. [6] Townshend (2002). [7] Hoffman (1998). [8] Hoffman (1998). [9] Terrorism Research Center (n.d.). [10] David J. Whittaker, Terrorists and Terrorism in the Contemporary World (New York: Routledge, 2004). [11] Townshend (2002). [12] Thackrah (2004). [13] David Fromkin, â€Å"The Strategy of Terrorism†, in Contemporary Terrorism: Selected Readings, John D. Elliot and Leslie K. Gibson, eds. (Gaithersburg, Maryland: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1978), cited in Oots (1986). [14] V. Bite, â€Å"International Terrorism†, Foreign Affairs Division, Library of Congress, Appendix of U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on the Judiciary (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1975), cited in Thackrah (2004). [15] P. B. Heyman, Terrorism and America: A Commonsense Strategy for a Democratic Society (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1998), cited in Thackrah (2004). [16] M. Bassiouni, â€Å"Terrorism, Law Enforcement and the Mass Media: Perspectives, Problems, Proposals†, The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 72:1 (1981), cited in Thackrah (2004). [17] P. Wilkinson, â€Å"Three Questions on Terrorism†, Government and Opposition 8:3 (1973), cited in Thackrah (2004). [18] Jay Mallin, â€Å"Terrorism as a Military Weapon†, in Contemporary Terrorism: Selected Readings, John D. Elliot and Leslie K. Gibson, eds. (Gaithersburg, Maryland: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1978), cited in Oots (1986). [19] J. Waciorsky, La Terrorisme Politique, (Paris: A Pedone, 1939), cited in Thackrah (2004). [20] P. Wilkinson, Terrorism versus Democracy: The Liberal State Response (London: Frank Cass, 2000), cited in Thackrah (2004). [21] The Columbia Encyclopaedia, â€Å"Terrorism† (2004). [22] N. Chomsky, â€Å"U.S.A Leading Terrorist State†, Monthly Review 53 (2001): 10-19, cited in Bergesen and Han (2005). [23] C. L. Ruby, â€Å"The Definition of Terrorism†, Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 2(1) (2002): 9-14, cited in Bergesen and Han (2005). [24] Whittaker (2004). [25] B. M. Jenkins, â€Å"Terrorism and Beyond: A 21st Century Perspective†, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 24 (2001): 321-27, cited in Bergesen and Han, â€Å"New Directions for Terrorism Research†, International Journal of Comparative Sociology 46:1-2 (2005). [26] W. Enders and T. Sandler, â€Å"Patterns of Transnational Terrorism, 1970 1999: Alternative Time-Series Estimates†, International Studies Quarterly 46 (2002): 145-65, cited in Bergesen and Han (2005). [27] Colin S. Gray, Modern Strategy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999). [28] The Columbia Encyclopaedia (2004). [29] Hoffman (1998). [30] Hoffman (1998). [31] Hoffman (1998). [32] The Columbia Encyclopaedia (2004). [33] Hoffman (1998). [34] N. Chomsky, â€Å"U.S.A Leading Terrorist State†, Monthly Review 53 (2001), cited in Bergesen and Han (2005). [35] Hoffman (1998). [36] Albert J. Bergesen and Yi Han, â€Å"New Directions for Terrorism Research†, International Journal of Comparative Sociology 46:1-2 (2005). [37] Bruce Kress, Marius H. Livingston, and Marie G. Wanek, International Terrorism in the Contemporary World (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1978). [38] Ian Lesser, â€Å"Countering the New Terrorism: Implications for Strategy†, in Hoffman et al., Countering the New Terrorism (Santa Monica, California: Rand, 1999). [39] Lesser (1999). [40] Kress, Livingston, and Wanek (1978). [41] Peter Chalk, â€Å"The Response to Terrorism as a Threat to Liberal Democracy†, The Australian Journal of Politics and History 44:3 (1998).

Impact of Turks and Mongols on the Islamic world Essay

The Turks and Mongols are two races that are an integral part in shaping the Islamic World as we know it today. Their roles in Islamic History are still visible when looking at the Islamic world in the present. The roots of Islam could be traced after the death of The Prophet, Muhammad. The early Islam world was dominated by the Umayyad from Damascus. The Umayyad was in turn succeeded by the Abbasids, which made Baghdad their capital. It was during the two caliphates that a majority of Muslim culture, government and society was established. The years of the Caliphates was known as the Golden Age of Islam. (Wilkinson and Salazar). The Abbasid Caliphate was ended by the Invasion of the Mongols. The Mongols were a nomadic tribe coming from the grasslands of Mongolia, their ruler then, The Great Khan Mongke, ordered his brother to attack the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. (Chaliand and Berrett) Baghdad, the capital of the Islamic world then was captured by Hulagu in 1258. (Bingham) This effectively destroyed most Islamic influence and put an end to the advances of the Golden Age. It became a region known as the Il-Khanate. The early years of the Il Khanate was characterized by persecution of the Muslims in the hands of the Buddhists and Christians in the area. However, when Ghazan, a Buddhist, became Khan, he converted to Islam and the whole region followed suit. Islam made a return as the dominant religion, driving out the Christians and Buddhists. (Halm) Schools and mosques were reestablished and peace again was at hand. (Wilkinson and Salazar) The Mongol Invasion effectively put an end to the Golden age. The various advancements in science, literature, medicine and the arts were in majority obliterated when the invasion occurred. The destruction of libraries, the killing of Muslim scholars and scientists all contributed to the rapid decline of Islamic learning. This was the major factor in the crippling of Muslim advancement in those fields by which at that time they were much more ahead than the West. Almost five hundred years worth of knowledge was obliterated upon the invasion of the Mongols. (Halm) The might and barbarity of the Mongol Hordes checked the advances of a larger empire, albeit one whose priority was not military, but religion and learning. The Ottomans were a group of Turkish tribes which united after being driven south by Mongol invaders. (Stefoff) They derive their name from Osman, who united the clans into a major force. They came into contact and embraced Islam as their faith. They were the frontier soldiers of the Islamic world, guarding against the Mongol Hordes. The invasion of Tamerlane weakened the Ottomans, but they recovered and began to take control of most of the Islam World. (Marozzi) It was under the Ottomans that the Muslims finally entered Constantinople, Turkey, effectively re breaching the barrier between east and west which was ended with the fall of Spain. (Halm) The ottomans were very effective in uniting the diverse people under their thrall. They developed an administrative system whereas religious autonomy was recognized under the sultanates, which greatly facilitated tax collecting. This millet system made the unification of ethically diverse people under a government of Islam not only feasible, but effective. (Stefoff) The Ottoman Empire became a bastion of the Islamic world against the west. At the same time, it was instrumental in allowing western advances in science and technology to reach the Muslim world. The military and economic strength of the empire prevented western influence from entering thru turkey and thus effectively ensured the maintaining of Islamic way of life in Southwest Asia. (Gardner et al. ; Kennedy) It was the ottoman Turks who nearly regained the lost glory of the Muslim Empire. Their management practice of dividing the Islamic world into sultanates, with each sultan acting as autonomous ruler greatly enhanced the stability of the empire. Their military strength secured Islam way of life up until the 1900s. The peak of the Ottoman Empire, under Suleiman, greatly enhanced Islamic way of life, introducing resurgence in Muslim culture and learning. (Meri and Bacharach) The strategic location of the Ottoman Empire gave them control of the land routes between Europe and Asia, thus making them economic powers. The two groups, the Mongols and the Turks, show how an outside force can impact a civilization. In the case on the Mongol Hordes, their impact upon the Islam world effectively retarded its growth, letting the West catch up to its advancement. The invasion brought an end to the Golden Age of Islam; however, it was also Mongols, those that converted, which started the revitalization of the Islamic World. (Gardner et al. ; Kennedy). The Turks also started as a separate ethnic group. However, with their conversion, the Islamic world gained leaders which spearheaded its strengthening, expansion and development. The role of these two groups in Islamic history is both significant, the Mongols in ending the Golden age, and the Turks, in revitalizing the Islamic way of life. References Bingham, Marjorie. â€Å"An Age of Empires, 1200-1750. † (2005): 157 p. Chaliand, Gerard, and A. M. Berrett. â€Å"Nomadic Empires : From Mongolia to the Danube. † (2004): xii, 135 p. Gardner, Robert, et al. Cities of Light the Rise and Fall of Islamic Spain. [videorecording] :. Unity Productions Foundation,, [Potomac Falls, VA? ] :, 2007. Halm, Heinz. â€Å"The Arabs : A Short History. † (2007): vi, 186 p. Kennedy, Hugh. â€Å"The Great Arab Conquests : How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In. † (2007): viii, 421 p. , [16] p. of plates. Marozzi, Justin. â€Å"Tamerlane : Sword of Islam, Conqueror of the World. † (2006): xxiv, 449 p. , [16] p. of plates. Meri, Josef W. , and Jere L. Bacharach. â€Å"Medieval Islamic Civilization : An Encyclopedia. † (2006). Stefoff, Rebecca. â€Å"The Medieval World. † (2005): 48 p. Wilkinson, Philip, and Batul Salazar. â€Å"Islam. † Dorling Kindersley eyewitness books. (2005): 72 p.

A Short Story - 952 Words

Festivities filled the Chamkar Mohn quarter of Phnom Penh; fragrant arrangements of jasmine and chrysanthemum, piles of wild fruits, and vermillion decorations filled every corner of the neighborhood. Petite candles and spherical paper lanterns pushed the glimmer of the stars and moon out of sight and lit the streets as men inside of large tiger costumes performed dances. A roaring of drums and the melody of Chinese-imported instruments filled the air and thundered in my chest. Inside of my house, well-dressed men and women presented themselves to my father with gifts wrapped in silk ribbon, Ang Pao envelopes, fine artwork, and many handcrafted items. The country’s finest bakers and chefs offered golden and sterling silver platters†¦show more content†¦The gentle glistening of the sun fell gracefully on my mother, who looked distressed and dispirited. Putting aside what she was doing, my mother locked her arms around me in a tight embrace. â€Å"Did you pack your old pictures and Taekwondo trophies, son?† my mother asked caringly. â€Å"No, mother. I left them organized in my drawer, so they’ll be here when I return.† I answered. It was almost time for me to leave to the airport with my father, so I said my farewells to my brothers and sisters. My youngest sister, always beaming with energy asked, â€Å"Bong Proh, will you come back? Will you make sure to visit us?† â€Å"Yes, of course I will, Oun. And the next time I see, you will be all grown.† I replied in reassurement. Months had passed, and my father had returned to Cambodia already. I was now living in what felt like a disparate world, brimming with many men and women with pale complexions, who spoke a brash language, lacking in rhythm. California was alien to me--America was alien to me. Knowing only some English, I persisted in my attempt to study for a bachelors degree in education at California State University, Long Beach. Father sent me money for rent and tuition every month, but soon, I stopped receiving mail from him. On the news one morning, I listened to President Nixon address a few words regarding the fall of Cambodia and the mass genocide that had taken place. I had already known the country wasShow MoreRelatedshort story1018 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Short Stories:  Ã‚  Characteristics †¢Short  - Can usually be read in one sitting. †¢Concise:  Ã‚  Information offered in the story is relevant to the tale being told.  Ã‚  This is unlike a novel, where the story can diverge from the main plot †¢Usually tries to leave behind a  single impression  or effect.  Ã‚  Usually, though not always built around one character, place, idea, or act. †¢Because they are concise, writers depend on the reader bringing  personal experiences  and  prior knowledge  to the story. Four MajorRead MoreThe Short Stories Ideas For Writing A Short Story Essay1097 Words   |  5 Pageswriting a short story. Many a time, writers run out of these short story ideas upon exhausting their sources of short story ideas. If you are one of these writers, who have run out of short story ideas, and the deadline you have for coming up with a short story is running out, the short story writing prompts below will surely help you. Additionally, if you are being tormented by the blank Microsoft Word document staring at you because you are not able to come up with the best short story idea, youRead MoreShort Story1804 Words   |  8 PagesShort story: Definition and History. A  short story  like any other term does not have only one definition, it has many definitions, but all of them are similar in a general idea. According to The World Book Encyclopedia (1994, Vol. 12, L-354), â€Å"the short story is a short work of fiction that usually centers around a single incident. 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Varied Potentials of Aspergillus Species in Synthesis of...

Conclusions To conclude, though use of Aspergillus species is common in synthesis of metal nanoparticles, these five species are not well studied. Among them, A. fischeri confirms a good quality production of AgNPs at an incredibly low concentration of salt solution used but with more number of bigger sized particles. However, efforts are underway to optimize the conditions in the process to obtain a good size and shape morphology. Also, understanding the protein–nanoparticle interactions during the synthesis mechanism shall guide us to the possibility of utilizing the present system as future ‘‘nano-factories’’. We aim to purify and characterize the proteins to comprehend their mode of action and possible interactions with silver†¦show more content†¦Characterization Change in color was visually observed in the silver nitrate solution incubated with all five Aspergillus species. The bio reduction of Ag+ in the aqueous solutions was screened by sampling of aliquots at different time intervals. Absorption measurements were carried out on Thermo-scientific UV-Visible Spectrophotometer from 200-800nm, at a resolution of 1 nm. A part of the dried powdered sample was analysed by X-ray diffractometer as a preliminary confirmative method of the presence of silver nanoparticles. The X-ray diffractometer (Rigaku Miniflex-11) was operated at a voltage of 30 kV and a current of 15mA with CuKÃŽ ± radiation (ÃŽ »=1.5406 Ã…) and at 2 theta angles, intensities were recorded from 6 °to 60 °. To know the size of synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), size distribution analysis was performed using dynamic light scattering in aqueous solution. The hydrodynamic size of the silver nanoparticles was obtained using a Zeta-sizer (Malvern) instrument applying a 660 nm laser. The software was optimized to report summary statistics based upon the intensity of light scattered. Two milliliter sample volumes from each nanosilver dispersion were loaded into glass cuvettes and summary statistics were obtained using triplicate 2 minutes analyses (total analysis time=6minutes). For Fourier transform